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Irak: Die Verpflichtungen der USA und Großbritanniens als Besatzungsmächte / OBLIGATIONS OF THE USA AND THE UK AS OCCUPYING POWERS

Im Wortlaut: 10-Punkte-Appell von amnesty international / Appeal of amnesty international

Im Folgenden dokumentieren wir ein Forderungspapier von amnesty international zur Behandlung der Menschen im besetzten Irak. Es handelt sich hier um eine deutsche Kurzfassung des englischen Originaltextes "Iraq: Responsibilities of the occupying powers", der am 16. April 2003 in London veröffentlicht wurde. Die Übersetzung besorgte die deutsche Sektion/Kogruppe Irak. Im Anhang befindet sich der ausführlichere englische Originaltext, allerdings ohne die beiden einleitenden Kapitel, in denen der rechtliche Rahmen dargelegt wird.


10-Punkte-Appell von amnesty international

Der Schutz der Menschenrechte ist im Irak vordringlich. Obwohl die schweren Kampfhandlungen offenbar beendet sind, herrscht nach wie vor humanitärer Ausnahmezustand. Gewalt, Tötungen, die Zerstörung von Eigentum und ein weit verbreitetes Klima der Unsicherheit dauern an. Wenn der Irak eine hoffnungsvolle Zukunft haben soll, muss diese auf dem Respekt für die Menschenrechte aufgebaut sein.

amnesty international ruft die Besatzungsmächte sowie alle anderen mit Machtbefugnissen ausgestatteten Kräfte im Irak auf, sich selbst öffentlich zur Einhaltung der folgenden zehn Punkte zu verpflichten. Die zehn Punkte leiten sich aus den Verpflichtungen nach dem humanitären Völkerrecht ab, insbesondere aus der 4. Genfer Konvention über den Schutz von Zivilpersonen in Kriegszeiten sowie aus internationalen Menschenrechtsstandards. Die übrigen Staaten der Völkergemeinschaft sollten auf die Einhaltung dieser Grundsätze drängen.

1. Öffentliche Ordnung und Sicherheit herstellen

Die Besatzungsmächte sowie jegliche Übergangsbehörden im Irak müssen in den ihrer Kontrolle unterstehenden Gebieten die öffentliche Ordnung und Sicherheit wiederherstellen und aufrecht erhalten. Sie müssen Gewaltakte gegen Personen und Sachen verhindern. Bei der Aufrechterhaltung der öffentlichen Ordnung müssen sie sicherstellen, dass Gewalt nur in Notfällen angewendet wird und im richtigen Verhältnis zur tatsächlichen Bedrohung steht. Sie müssen ferner die Rechte der Bevölkerung auf freie Meinungsäußerung sowie auf Versammlungs- und Vereinigungsfreiheit achten.

Beim Wiederaufbau der Polizei- und Sicherheitskräfte müssen sie faire Prüfungsverfahren einrichten, um die Möglichkeit zu minimieren, dass Beamte, die möglicherweise an schweren Menschenrechtsverletzungen beteiligt waren, ihren Dienst wieder aufnehmen.

2. Die Grundbedürfnisse der irakischen Bevölkerung befriedigen

Insbesondere die Besatzungsmächte müssen gewährleisten, dass den Menschen, die im Irak in den ihrer Kontrolle unterstehenden Gebieten leben, ohne Verzögerung Nahrung, Wasser, Unterkünfte und medizinische Versorgung zur Verfügung gestellt wird. Sie müssen die Arbeit der Krankenhäuser und anderer öffentlicher Dienstleistungen sowie die öffentliche Gesundheits- und Hygienefürsorge sicherstellen.

3. Bei andauernden Kampfhandlungen Zivilisten schützen und auf gesetzlicher Grundlage vorgehen

In einigen Teilen des Irak können sporadische Kampfhandlungen andauern oder wieder aufflammen. In allen solchen Fällen müssen Zivilpersonen und andere an den Kampfhandlungen unbeteiligte Personen geschützt werden. Ferner darf es keinerlei wahllose Angriffe, Geiselnahmen, Kollektivstrafen oder andere unmenschliche oder willkürliche Behandlung geben.

4. Die Rechte von Gefangenen schützen

Wenn der bewaffnete Konflikt beendet ist, müssen alle Kriegsgefangenen freigelassen werden. Inhaftierte Zivilisten müssen so frühzeitig wie möglich auf freien Fuß gesetzt oder aber einer erkennbar strafbaren Handlung angeklagt und vor Gericht gestellt werden. Unter allen Umständen müssen sie das Recht erhalten, die Rechtmäßigkeit ihrer Inhaftierung anzufechten.

Alle Gefangene müssen menschlich behandelt und vor Zwang, Folterungen und Misshandlungen geschützt werden.

5. Keine willkürlichen Vertreibungen, keine ethnisch motivierten Säuberungen, Flüchtlinge müssen geschützt werden

Die Besatzungsmächte dürfen keine irakischen Zivilisten aus dem besetzten Gebiet zwangsweise entfernen oder vertreiben. Festgenommene Zivilpersonen dürfen nicht außer Landes gebracht werden. Alle Iraker müssen davor geschützt werden, aus ihren Häusern zwangsweise oder willkürlich vertrieben zu werden.

Ins Ausland geflüchtete oder im Exil lebende Iraker müssen vor zwangsweiser Rückführung (refoulement) in den Irak geschützt werden, solange sie dort Gefahr laufen, Opfer schwerer Menschenrechtsverstöße zu werden.

6. Im Mittelpunkt der Wiederaufbaubemühungen müssen die Menschenrechte stehen

Bei der Planung und Durchführung von Wiederaufbauprojekten müssen die Menschenrechte die Richtschnur sein. Die Besatzungsmächte müssen das Eigentum geschützter Personen (und nach der 4. Genfer Konvention sind alle irakischen Staatsangehörigen als geschützte Personen anzusehen) sichern. Ferner dürfen sie als Sachwalter des öffentlichen Eigentums und der natürlichen Ressourcen des Irak diese weder in Besitz nehmen oder anderweitig darüber verfügen.

7. Schaffung eines rechtsstaatlichen Justizsystems

Alle, die für Verbrechen nach dem Völkerrecht und andere schwere Menschenrechtsverstöße im Irak Verantwortung tragen, müssen auf der Grundlage international anerkannter Standards für ein faires Gerichtsverfahren vor Gericht gestellt werden, ohne das gegen sie die Todesstrafe verhängt werden kann. Für völkerrechtsrelevante Verbrechen darf es keine Amnestien geben.

Kernbestandteil eines umfassenden Programms zur Reform des Justizwesens ist die Reform des irakischen Strafrechtssystems. Bis zum Abschluss einer umfassenden Justizreform könnten ergänzende Ansätze, wie bspw. die Einberufung von internationalen oder gemischten (d.h. mit Einbeziehung irakischer Richter) Tribunalen in Erwägung gezogen werden.

8. Entsendung einer UN-Sachverständigenkommission zur Unterstützung der Justizreform

Es sollte eine UN-Expertenkommission entsendet werden, die unverzüglich und in enger Konsultation mit den Irakern in einem Zeitraum von mehreren Monaten Vorschläge für eine Reform des irakischen Strafrechtssystems erarbeitet. Weitere Aufgabe dieser Expertenkommission sollte es sein, Vorschläge für ergänzende Ansätze und Institutionen zur Rechtsfindung und Rechtsprechung für die Übergangsphase zu entwickeln. Die Empfehlungen dieser UN-Kommission sollten sich an die neue irakische Regierung richten, da die Besatzungsmächte nicht berechtigt sind, an dem bisher bestehenden Justizsystem weitreichende Veränderungen vorzunehmen. Die Besatzungsmächte sollten sämtliche Todesurteile und andere grausame und unmenschliche Strafen aufheben. Die Arbeit der irakischen Sondergerichte, deren Verfahren mit international anerkannten Standards für faire Gerichtsverfahren unvereinbar sind, ist einzustellen. Die Besatzungsmächte sollten keine eigenen Gerichte einsetzen.

9. Entsendung von UN-Menschenrechtsbeobachtern in den Irak

Menschenrechtsbeobachter könnten dem Schutz der Menschen- und Grundrechte dienen, indem sie menschenrechtsrelevante Fragen und Einzelfälle vor Ort bei den Behörden zur Sprache bringen. Ferner könnten sie der internationalen Gemeinschaft zeitnah zuverlässige Informationen über die Menschenrechtslage im Irak zur Verfügung stellen.

10. Unterstützung der Arbeit von Hilfsorganisationen

Die Besatzungsmächte müssen Hilfsorganisationen Zugang zu bedürftigen Menschen verschaffen und dürfen deren Aktivitäten der Hilfsorganisationen nicht unnötig verzögern. Sie sollten umfassend mit dem Internationalen Komitee vom Roten Kreuz (IKRK) sowie mit dem irakischen Roten Halbmond zusammenarbeiten. Dem IKRK ist seitens der Besatzungsmächte u.a. der Zugang zu allen Gefangenen zu ermöglichen.

Quelle: www.amnesty.de


OBLIGATIONS OF THE USA AND THE UK AS OCCUPYING POWERS

1. Duty to restore and maintain law and order

The occupying power has the duty to restore and maintain public order and safety in the territories controlled by its forces, in accordance with Article 43 of the Hague Regulations.

In order to carry out this duty, the occupying power is entitled to "take such measures of control and security in regard to protected persons as may be necessary as a result of the war", in the language of Article 27 of the Fourth Geneva Convention. Such measures may include the use of force. However any use of force in circumstances outside combat, whether by soldiers or police officers, must be consistent with international law enforcement standards, including the 1979 UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (Code of Conduct) and the 1990 UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials (Basic Principles).

Article 3 of the Code of Conduct reflects the principles of necessity and proportionality: law enforcement officials "may use force only when strictly necessary and to the extent required for the performance of their duty." The Commentary to this article specifies that the use of firearms is an extreme measure:

" Every effort should be made to exclude the use of firearms, especially against children. In general, firearms should not be used except when a suspected offender offers armed resistance or otherwise jeopardizes the lives of others and less extreme measures are not sufficient to restrain or apprehend the suspected offender. In every instance in which a firearm is discharged, a report should be made promptly to the competent authorities."

According to the Basic Principles, law enforcement officials faced by disorders, including violent assemblies, "shall not use firearms against persons except in self-defence or defence of others against the imminent threat of death or serious injury, to prevent the perpetration of a particularly serious crime involving grave threat to life, to arrest a person presenting such a danger and resisting their authority, or to prevent his or her escape, and only when less extreme means are insufficient to achieve these objectives. In any event, intentional lethal use of firearms may only be made when strictly unavoidable in order to protect life."

Combat troops do not usually have the training or the proper equipment for performing policing functions, and should not be expected to do so. However, occupying powers have a duty to plan for the breakdown of law and order in the areas where they establish military control, an all too common occurrence in armed conflict and one repeatedly predicted in the case of Iraq. Much planning and resources seem to have been devoted to securing Iraqi oilfields. However, there is scarce evidence of similar levels of planning and allocation of resources for securing public and other institutions essential for the survival and well-being of the population. The response to disorder has been shockingly inadequate.

Amnesty International calls on the USA and the UK to deploy forces in sufficient numbers and with the right training and equipment to restore law and order, until Iraqi police forces can operate effectively. An effective and fair vetting procedure for members of the Iraqi police forces should be set up urgently, so as to reduce the chance of restoring to their duties officials who may have been involved in human rights violations. In exercising or supervising policing functions, the USA and the UK must ensure that the rights of freedom of expression and assembly are not arbitrarily restricted.

2. Duty to provide food, medical care and facilitate relief assistance

The occupying power has the obligation to ensure, if necessary, the provision of food and medical supplies to the inhabitants of the occupied territories. According to Article 55 of the Fourth Geneva Convention:
"To the fullest extent of the means available to it, the Occupying Power has the duty of ensuring the food and medical supplies of the population; it should, in particular, bring in the necessary foodstuffs, medical stores and other articles if the resources of the occupied territory are inadequate."

With regard to medical care, Article 56 says that the occupying power:
"has the duty of ensuring and maintaining, with the cooperation of national and local authorities, the medical and hospital establishments and services, public health and hygiene in the occupied territory, with particular reference to the adoption and application of the prophylactic and preventive measures necessary to combat the spread of contagious diseases and epidemics. Medical personnel of all categories shall be allowed to carry out their duties."

More generally, under Article 59, "If the whole or part of the population of an occupied territory is inadequately supplied, the Occupying Power shall agree to relief schemes on behalf of the said population, and shall facilitate them by all the means at its disposal." Such schemes may be undertaken by states or impartial humanitarian organizations such as the ICRC and "shall especially consist of foodstuffs, medical supplies and clothing." Every effort shall be made to protect such consignments. However, relief consignments in no way relieve the occupying powers of their responsibilities (Article 60).

Amnesty International calls on the USA and the UK to intervene to ensure the safe functioning of hospitals and other public services, as well as the prompt delivery of food and water to those in need. Every effort must be made to facilitate the work of international and other humanitarian organizations, including by assisting them in getting effective access to all those in need. In particular, the ICRC and the Iraqi Red Crescent Society must be able to pursue their activities in accordance with the principles of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

3. Penal legislation: limited scope to introduce changes

In line with the transitional nature of belligerent occupation, Article 64 of the Fourth Geneva Convention stipulates that the "penal laws of the occupied territory shall remain in force, with the exception that they may be repealed or suspended by the Occupying Power in cases where they constitute a threat to its security or an obstacle to the application of the present Convention."

The Commentary to this Article (pages 335-336) stresses that a basic principle of the law of occupation is the "idea of continuity of the legal system" of the occupied territories, which "applies to the whole of the law (civil law and penal law)". It explains that the reason for the express reference in the Fourth Geneva Convention "only to respect for penal law was that it had not been sufficiently observed during past conflicts; there is no reason to infer a contrario that the occupation authorities are not also bound to respect the civil law of the country, or even its constitution."

There are only two exceptions to the rule of preserving existing penal laws. The first relates to the security of the occupying power, which, as the ICRC Commentary explains, "must obviously be permitted to cancel provisions such as those concerning recruiting or urging the population to resist the enemy." The second "is in the interests of the population" and makes it possible to abrogate, for example, discriminatory measures. The occupying powers cannot abrogate or suspend the penal laws for any other reason - and not, in particular, merely to make it accord with their own legal conceptions."

Article 68 of the Fourth Geneva Convention permits the death penalty to be imposed for particularly serious offences, but not on people who were under 18 years of age at the time of the offence. However, this provision was adopted in 1949, when the death penalty was widely used. Today more than 100 countries have abolished it in law or practice. The death penalty is ruled out as a punishment in all international and mixed courts and tribunals for the worst crimes in the world, such as genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It should not be used in Iraq.

In line with these provisions of international humanitarian law and with their obligations under international human rights law, the USA and UK should not observe provisions of Iraqi domestic law which are contrary to international law. Amnesty International has long been concerned about Iraqi legislation inconsistent with international law and standards, such as numerous special decrees issued by the Revolutionary Command Council providing for the death penalty and mutilations for a wide range of offences (see Amnesty International, Iraq: Systematic torture of political prisoners, MDE 14/008/2001, August 2001).

Amnesty International calls on the USA and the UK to suspend the application of Iraqi laws or decrees which contravene international law, while respecting their restrictions regarding other legislative changes as required by the Fourth Geneva Convention. Legislation prescribing corporal punishments and the death penalty should be suspended pending its abolition.

4. Limited legislative powers of the occupying power

An occupying power has a limited scope to enact its own legal provisions. Article 64.2 of the Fourth Geneva Convention states that the occupying power may "subject the population of the occupied territory to provisions which are essential to enable the Occupying Power to fulfil its obligations under the present Convention, to maintain the orderly government of the territory, and to ensure the security of the Occupying Power, of the members and property of the occupying forces or administration, and likewise of the establishments and lines of communication used by them."

The Commentary (page 337) sets out the matters in which an occupying power may exercise legislative power. They are limited to provisions "required for the application of the Convention" in areas such as child welfare, labour, food, hygiene and public health; other provisions necessary to maintain the "orderly government of the territory"; and penal provisions "for its own protection."

Under Article 65, any "penal provisions enacted by the Occupying Power shall not come into force before they have been published and brought to the knowledge of the inhabitants in their own language. The effect of these penal provisions shall not be retroactive."

Amnesty International calls on the USA and the UK to limit their exercise of any legislative powers to the scope provided for by the Fourth Geneva Convention. All efforts must be made to properly inform the public of any laws or regulations enacted in this respect. In terms of the broader task of reforming the legal system, a UN commission of experts should be established to develop proposals for implementation by whatever authority replaces the USA and the UK in Iraq.

5. Criminal jurisdiction

Under the Fourth Geneva Convention, the status of judges, like that of public officials, may not be altered by occupying powers (Article 54). Existing tribunals shall continue to function, retaining their jurisdiction over offences of domestic criminal law by inhabitants of the occupied territory (Article 64.1). However, in the absence of a functioning judicial system, the occupying power may establish its own courts to perform the functions of the ordinary judiciary, provided they apply existing laws.

Article 66 provides that in case an occupying power enacts legislative provisions, it may also establish its own "properly constituted, non-political military courts", which shall sit in the occupied territories, while courts of appeal shall "preferably sit in the territories." (Article 66).

Military courts set up by the occupying power must respect detailed procedural guarantees laid down in Articles 67 and 69 to 75. Moreover, under the heading fundamental guarantees, Article 75 (1) of Protocol I has codified all the guarantees of fair trial. The content of Article 75 is recognized, including by the USA, which has not ratified Protocol I, as reflecting customary international law. These guarantees are likewise the essence of modern international human rights law, as codified in Article 14 of the ICCPR and other international standards.

The Fourth Geneva Convention affirms the principle of individual criminal responsibility, and prohibits collective penalties (Article 33). Persons accused or convicted of a criminal offence must be detained in humane conditions and kept in detention facilities within the occupied territory (Article 76). They have the right to receive visits by the delegates of the ICRC.

Amnesty International has long been concerned at the operation of the Iraqi criminal justice system, including the lack of independence of judges; the use of torture; and grossly unfair trials by Iraqi special and other courts. However, Amnesty International believes that tribunals established by the USA and the UK would be undesirable, since they risk being perceived as "victors' justice". Amnesty International believes that military courts should not be used to try civilians or to try members of armed forces for crimes under international law. In addition, certain proposals such as the use of US military commissions, which are not even courts, would be grossly unfair under international law.

Amnesty International calls on the USA and the UK to suspend the operations of special Iraqi tribunals which have been operating in violation of international human rights law and standards. It also calls on the USA and the UK to ensure that ordinary Iraqi courts do not violate international law and standards. The USA and the UK should not establish their own tribunals. They should allow a UN commission of experts to develop proposals at the earliest possible date, in close consultation with Iraqi civil society, for transitional tribunals and other judicial approaches, pending the reform of the Iraqi criminal justice system.

6. Assigned residence or administrative detention (internment)

According to Article 78 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, if the occupying power "considers it necessary, for imperative reasons of security, to take safety measures concerning protected persons, it may, at the most, subject them to assigned residence or to internment." However, in such cases Article 78 requires that:

"Decisions regarding such assigned residence or internment shall be made according to a regular procedure to be prescribed by the Occupying Power in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention. This procedure shall include the right of appeal for the parties concerned. Appeals shall be decided with the least possible delay. In the event of the decision being upheld, it shall be subject to periodical review, if possible every six months, by a competent body set up by the said Power."

Administrative detainees have the right to receive visits by the delegates of the ICRC.

Amnesty International recognizes that temporary restrictive measures such as those allowed by the Fourth Geneva Convention may be necessary, especially in response to widespread disorders. However, it calls on the USA and the UK to hold any detained civilians for the shortest possible time and release them unless they are to be charged with a recognizably criminal offence and brought to trial.

Amnesty International believes that judicial review of temporary detention should be on a frequent, individualized basis. All detainees must have the ability to seek judicial - not just administrative - review at any time of the legality of their detention and to be released if the detention is unlawful, as guaranteed by Article 9 (4) of the ICCPR.

7. Prohibition of coercion, torture and other forms of brutality

"No physical or moral coercion shall be exercised against protected persons, in particular to obtain information from them or from third parties" (Article 31).

Also prohibited is "any measure of such a character as to cause the physical suffering or extermination of protected persons in their hands. This prohibition applies not only to murder, torture, corporal punishments, mutilation and medical or scientific experiments not necessitated by the medical treatment of a protected person, but also to any other measures of brutality whether applied by civilian or military agents" (Article 32).

Amnesty International calls on the USA and UK to ensure that civilians are protected against any coercion, torture or other forms of brutality.

8. Prohibition of deportation and transfer

Protected persons, whether detained, serving a prison sentence, or not in custody, should not be forcibly removed from occupied territories. According to Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention:
"Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive."

Article 49.2 of the Fourth Geneva Convention also prohibits forcible transfers of the civilian population within the occupied territory unless "the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand". According to recent reports, supporters of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Democratic Party, groups operating in close cooperation with US forces, have forcibly displaced Arabs from their homes. The USA and UK, as occupying powers, have the obligation to ensure that any forcible displacement happens only in the narrowly circumscribed circumstances permitted under Article 49.

Amnesty International calls on the USA and UK not to remove any Iraqi civilians from occupied territories and take them to their own territories or to those of other countries, regardless of the reason. In particular, the USA must not transfer any protected person to Guantanamo Bay, and the UK should not hand over any protected person to the USA without guarantees that their rights under occupation law will be fully respected. The USA and UK must also ensure that allied armed groups respect the rules of international humanitarian law in these and all other circumstances.

9. Protection of property and natural resources

The Hague Regulations require the USA and UK to respect "private property" (Article 46). They "shall be regarded only as administrator[s]" of publicly owned buildings and of natural resources such "forests, and agricultural estates" (Article 55). As such, the USA and the UK must not appropriate or otherwise dispose of public property or of the natural resources of Iraq.

The "extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly", is a war crime, specifically a grave breach of the Fourth Geneva Convention (Article 147).

Amnesty International calls on the USA and the UK to safeguard the property of protected persons. As caretakers of Iraqi public property and natural resources, they must not appropriate them or otherwise dispose of them.

10. Role of the International Committee of the Red Cross

A fundamental safeguard for the protection of civilians in occupied territory is constituted by the work of the ICRC. Under the Fourth Geneva Convention the occupying powers must accept the services of the ICRC (Article 143.5). Its delegates have the right to take up any matter relating to the law of occupation. They must be granted free movement throughout the entire occupied territory. In particular, they must be given free access to all detention facilities and to all categories of detainees.

Amnesty International calls on the USA and the UK to fully cooperate with the ICRC so that it can fully exercise its mandate in Iraq.


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